Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. They can be either synthetic or natural chemical compounds. Synthetic xenoestrogens include some widely used industrial compounds, such as PCBs, BPA, and phthalates, which have estrogenic effects on a living organism even though they differ chemically from the estrogenic substances produced internally by the endocrine system of any organism. Natural xenoestrogens include phytoestrogenswhich are plant-derived xenoestrogens. Because the primary route of exposure to these compounds is by consumption of phytoestrogenic plants, they are sometimes called “dietary estrogens”. Mycoestrogens, estrogenic substances from fungi, are another type of xenoestrogen that are also considered mycotoxins.

Xenoestrogens are clinically significant because they can mimic the effects of endogenous estrogen and thus have been implicated in precocious puberty and other disorders of the reproductive system.^[1][2]

Xenoestrogens include pharmacological estrogens (in which estrogenic action is an intended effect, as in the drug ethinylestradiol used in contraceptive pills), but other chemicals may also have estrogenic effects. Xenoestrogens have been introduced into the environment by industrial, agricultural and chemical companies and consumers only in the last 70 years or so, but archiestrogens exist naturally. Some plants (like the cereals and the legumes) are using estrogenic substances possibly as part of their natural defence against herbivore animals by controlling their fertility.^[3][4]

The potential ecological and human health impact of xenoestrogens is of growing concern.^[5] The word xenoestrogen is derived from the Greek words ξένο (xeno, meaning foreign), οἶστρος (estrus, meaning sexual desire) and γόνο (gene, meaning “to generate”) and literally means “foreign estrogen“. Xenoestrogens are also called “environmental hormones” or “EDC” (Endocrine Disrupting Compounds). Most scientists that study xenoestrogens, including The Endocrine Society, regard them as serious environmental hazards that have hormone disruptive effects on both wildlife and humans.^{[6][7][8][9][10]}

1. Xenoestrogen exposure and mechanisms of endocrine disruption
2. Non-genomic effects of Xenoestrogen mixtures
3. Xenoestrogen regulation of ERα/ERβ balance in hormone-associated cancers
4. Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the Xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased …
5. Effects of maternal Xenoestrogen exposure on development of the reproductive tract and mammary gland in female CD-1 mouse offspring
6. The Xenoestrogen Bisphenol A Induces Growth, Differentiation, and c-fos Gene Expression in the Female Reproductive Tract
7. Xenoestrogen interaction with human sex hormone-binding globulin (hSHBG) 1
8. Exposure to environmentally relevant doses of the Xenoestrogen bisphenol-A alters development of the fetal mouse mammary gland
9. Long-term effects of fetal exposure to low doses of the Xenoestrogen bisphenol-A in the female mouse genital tract
10. Xenoestrogen-induced ERK-1 and ERK-2 activation via multiple membrane-initiated signaling pathways
11. The Xenoestrogen bisphenol A induces inappropriate androgen receptor activation and mitogenesis in prostatic adenocarcinoma cells
12. Effects of Xenoestrogen treatment on zona radiata protein and vitellogenin expression in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
13. Developing a marker of exposure to Xenoestrogen mixtures in human serum.
14. Xenoestrogen-induced regulation of EZH2 and histone methylation via estrogen receptor signaling to PI3K/AKT
15. … -mediated extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling in the rat cerebellar cortex: potent nongenomic agonist and endocrine disrupting activity of the Xenoestrogen …
16. Degradation of the Xenoestrogen nonylphenol by aquatic fungi and their laccases
17. Perinatal exposure to the Xenoestrogen bisphenol-A induces mammary intraductal hyperplasias in adult CD-1 mice
18. Estrogen receptor-mediated effects of a Xenoestrogen, bisphenol A, on preimplantation mouse embryos
19. Xenoestrogen-induced epigenetic repression of microRNA-9-3 in breast epithelial cells
20. The Xenoestrogen bisphenol A inhibits postembryonic vertebrate development by antagonizing gene regulation by thyroid hormone
21. Sex reversal effects on Caiman latirostris exposed to environmentally relevant doses of the Xenoestrogen bisphenol A
22. Metabolic androgenization of female Daphnia magna by the Xenoestrogen 4‐nonylphenol
23. Consequences of Xenoestrogen Exposure on Male Reproductive Function in Spottail Shiners (Notropis hudsonius)
24. Xenoestrogen action in prostate cancer: pleiotropic effects dependent on androgen receptor status
25. Xenoestrogen exposure imprints expression of genes (Hoxa10) required for normal uterine development
26. Effects of prepubertal exposure to Xenoestrogen on development of estrogen target organs in female CD-1 mice
27. Assessment of total effective Xenoestrogen burden in adipose tissue and identification of chemicals responsible for the combined estrogenic effect
28. Transfer and metabolism of the Xenoestrogen zearalenone in human perfused placenta
29. Activation of autophagic flux against Xenoestrogen bisphenol-A-induced hippocampal neurodegeneration via AMP kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of …
30. Disruption of male reproductive tract development by administration of the Xenoestrogen, nonylphenol, to male newborn rats
31. Total effective Xenoestrogen burden in serum samples and risk for breast cancer in a population-based multicase–control study in Spain
32. Preferential epigenetic programming of estrogen response after in utero Xenoestrogen (bisphenol‐A) exposure
33. … modulation of brain and hepatic estrogen receptor and P450arom isotypes in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) after waterborne exposure to the Xenoestrogen, 4 …
34. Estrogen-and Xenoestrogen-induced ERK signaling in pituitary tumor cells involves estrogen receptor-α interactions with G protein-αi and caveolin I
35. Tissue-specific estrogenic and non-estrogenic effects of a Xenoestrogen, nonylphenol
36. Strain differences in vaginal responses to the Xenoestrogen bisphenol A.
37. Xenoestrogen exposure and effects in English sole (Parophrys vetulus) from Puget Sound, WA
38. The Xenoestrogen 4-nonylphenol modulates hepatic gene expression of pregnane X receptor, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, CYP3A and CYP1A1 in juvenile Atlantic …
39. Brain aromatase in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes): molecular characterization and role in Xenoestrogen-induced sex reversal
40. The male mammary gland: a target for the Xenoestrogen bisphenol A
41. Differential spatiotemporal regulation of lactoferrin and progesterone receptor genes in the mouse uterus by primary estrogen, catechol estrogen, and Xenoestrogen
42. Maternal oestrogen/Xenoestrogen exposure alters expression of steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1/Ad4BP) in the fetal rat testis
43. Consumption of Xenoestrogen-contaminated fish during lactation alters adult male reproductive function
44. Elucidation of Xenoestrogen metabolism by non-targeted, stable isotope-assisted mass spectrometry in breast cancer cells
45. Differential Xenoestrogen-sulfating activities of the human cytosolic sulfotransferases: molecular cloning, expression, and purification of human SULT2B1a and …
46. Estrogen and Xenoestrogen actions on endocrine pancreas: from ion channel modulation to activation of nuclear function
47. The role and impact of estrogens and Xenoestrogen on the development of cervical cancer
48. The Xenoestrogen, 4-nonylphenol, impaired steroidogenesis in previtellogenic oocyte culture of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) by targeting the StAR protein and …
49. Genotoxic effects of binary mixtures of xenoandrogens (tributyltin, triphenyltin) and a Xenoestrogen (ethinylestradiol) in a partial life-cycle test with Zebrafish (Danio …
50. … cell tumorigenesis-implication of G-protein coupled membrane estrogen receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor and Xenoestrogen exposure. In vivo and …
51. Exposure to a Xenoestrogen before birth: the diethylstilbestrol experience
52. Toxicity of the Xenoestrogen nonylphenol and its biodegradation by the alga Cyclotella caspia
53. Human breast milk and Xenoestrogen exposure: a possible impact on human health
54. Male specific association between Xenoestrogen levels in placenta and birthweight
55. … under climate change and chemical pollution: are there interactions between the effects of elevated temperature and a Xenoestrogen on early development in …
56. Hormone receptor expression in aging mammary tissue and carcinoma from a rodent model after Xenoestrogen disruption
57. NF-κB—An Important Player in Xenoestrogen Signaling in Immune Cells
58. Altered reproductive success in rat pairs after environmental-like exposure to Xenoestrogen
59. Xenoestrogen effects on the gut microbiome
60. Anti-estrogen prevents Xenoestrogen-induced testicular pathology of eelpout (Zoarces viviparus)
61. Effects of Xenoestrogen bisphenol A on uterine and pituitary weight, serum prolactin levels and immunoreactive prolactin cells in ovariectomized Wistar rats
62. Analysis of population characteristics related to the total effective Xenoestrogen burden: a biomarker of Xenoestrogen exposure in breast cancer
63. Assessment of the total effective Xenoestrogen burden in extracts of human placentas
64. Identification of novel metabolites of the Xenoestrogen 4-tert-octylphenol in primary rat hepatocytes
65. Environmentally relevant Xenoestrogen tissue concentrations correlated to biological responses in mice.
66. Antiestrogens Inhibit Xenoestrogen-Induced Brain Aromatase Activity but Do Not Prevent Xenoestrogen-Induced Feminization in Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes)
67. Expressomal approach for comprehensive analysis and visualization of ligand sensitivities of Xenoestrogen responsive genes
68. Dimethyl sulfoxide is a potent modulator of estrogen receptor isoforms and Xenoestrogen biomarker responses in primary culture of salmon hepatocytes
69. … of gas chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry for quantification and confirmation of organohalogen Xenoestrogen compounds in human …
70. Physiological and Histopathological studies on Bisphenol-A compound as Xenoestrogen in male albino rats
71. Effects of the Xenoestrogen bisphenol A on expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the rat
72. Predictors of the total effective Xenoestrogen burden (TEXB) in human adipose tissue. A pilot study
73. Neonatal Xenoestrogen exposure alters growth hormone-dependent liver proteins and genes in adult female rats
74. Biotransformation of the Xenoestrogen 4-tert-octylphenol in hepatocytes of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
75. Estrogen receptors are involved in Xenoestrogen induction of growth hormone in the rat pituitary gland
76. … of the influence of extracellular laccase and intracellular reactions on the isomer-specific biotransformation of the Xenoestrogen technical nonylphenol by the aquatic …
77. Activation of autophagic flux via LKB1/AMPK/mTOR axis against Xenoestrogen Bisphenol-A exposure in primary rat hepatocytes
78. Phospholipids and protein adaptation of Pseudomonas sp. to the Xenoestrogen tributyltin chloride (TBT)
79. Detoxification and elimination of Xenoestrogen nonylphenol by the filamentous fungus Aspergillus versicolor
80. Xenoestrogen action in breast cancer: impact on ER-dependent transcription and mitogenesis
81. A Calcium-Binding Protein, Calbindin-D9k, Is Regulated through an Estrogen-Receptor–Mediated Mechanism following Xenoestrogen Exposure in the GH3 Cell Line
82. Female infertility–effect of perinatal Xenoestrogen exposure on reproductive functions in animals and humans.
83. Structural essentials of Xenoestrogen dialkyl phthalates to bind to the estrogen receptors
84. The total effective Xenoestrogen burden, a biomarker of exposure to Xenoestrogen mixtures, is predicted by the (anti) estrogenicity of its components
85. Methods for Xenoestrogen testing
86. Modulation of salmon ovarian steroidogenesis and growth factor responses by the Xenoestrogen, 4-nonylphenol
87. Xenoestrogen modulation of the immune system: effects of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)
88. Developmental exposure to Xenoestrogen enhances spatial learning in male rats
89. Characterization of a cytosolic estrogen receptor and its up-regulation by 17β-estradiol and the Xenoestrogen 4-tert-octylphenol in the liver of eelpout (Zoarces …
90. Effects of the Xenoestrogen bisphenol A in diencephalic regions of the teleost fish Coris julis occur preferentially via distinct somatostatin receptor subtypes
91. Extracellular laccase activity and transcript levels of putative laccase genes during removal of the Xenoestrogen technical nonylphenol by the aquatic hyphomycete …
92. Immunotoxicity of the Xenoestrogen 4-nonylphenol to the cockle Cerastoderma glaucum
93. Effect of Xenoestrogen exposure on the expression of cytochrome P450 isoforms in rainbow trout liver
94. Increased level of cellular Bip critically determines estrogenic potency for a Xenoestrogen kepone in the mouse uterus
95. Differences in sensitivity but not selectivity of Xenoestrogen binding to alligator versus human estrogen receptor alpha
96. In vitro observations and in silico predictions of Xenoestrogen mixture effects in T47D-based receptor transactivation and proliferation assays
97. Gestational and lactational Xenoestrogen exposure disrupts morphology and inflammatory aspects in mammary gland of gerbil mothers during involution
98. Chronic low-dose exposure to Xenoestrogen ambient air pollutants and breast cancer risk: XENAIR protocol for a case-control study nested within the French …
99. A monoclonal antibody against Lates calcarifer vitellogenin and a competitive ELISA to evaluate vitellogenin induction after exposure to Xenoestrogen
100. Combined approaches for evaluation of Xenoestrogen neural toxicity and thyroid dysfunction: Screening of oxido‐nitrosative markers, DNA fragmentation, and …
101. Mechanisms of estrogen-induced effects in avian reproduction caused by transovarian application of a Xenoestrogen, diethylstilbestrol
102. Xenoestrogen exposure and effects in bluegill from the Reedy River, South Carolina, USA
103. Effects of exposure to the Xenoestrogen octylphenol and subsequent transfer to clean water on liver and gonad ultrastructure during early development of Zoarces …
104. Exploring the molecular level interaction of Xenoestrogen phthalate plasticisers with oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα) Y537S mutant
105. Interference of Xenoestrogen o, p′-DDT on the action of endogenous estrogens at environmentally realistic concentrations
106. Involvement of endocannabinoid CB1 receptor in the modulation of stress responses related to Xenoestrogen exposure
107. Xenoestrogen effects of chemical compounds: influence on the breast cancer
108. Degradation of benzophenone, a potential Xenoestrogen, by a yeast isolated from the activated sludge of a sewage treatment plant in Hokkaido
109. Xenoestrogen exposure and kidney function in the general population: Results of a community-based study by laboratory tests and questionnaire-based …
110. The Xenoestrogen bisphenol A in the Hershberger assay: androgen receptor regulation and morphometrical reactions indicate no major effects
111. Genetic polymorphisms of insulin-like growth factor 1 and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3, Xenoestrogen, phytoestrogen, and premenopausal breast cancer
112. Changes in the total effective Xenoestrogen burden (TEXB) of breast cancer patients during an 18-month post-surgical follow-up
113. Gender and age related modulation of Xenoestrogen-induced tumorigenesis
114. Vaccination of Gilthead Seabream After Continuous Xenoestrogen Oral Exposure Enhances the Gut Endobolome and Immune Status via GPER1
115. Epididymal markers in rats exposed to the Xenoestrogen p‐nonylphenol: no biochemical effects at low dosages
116. Amphibians as a model for studying Xenoestrogen‐dependent neuroedocrine disruption
117. Breast cancer: Evidence for Xenoestrogen involvement in altering its incidence and risk
118. Fish Zona radiata (eggshell) proteins: evaluation and validation as a biomarker for Xenoestrogen monitoring
119. Withdrawal: Activation of autophagic flux against Xenoestrogen bisphenol-A-Induced hippocampal neurodegeneration via AMP kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of …
120. Effect of bisphenol A on the first generation of female rats from both parents treated with the same Xenoestrogen
121. Effect of Both Phytoestrogen and Xenoestrogen on Some Sexual Hormones in Male Albino Rats and Illustration of The Effect of Arctium Lappa L (A. Lappa) on Their …
122. Xenoestrogen interference with nongenomic signaling actions of physiological estrogens in endocrine cancer cells
123. Role of estrogen and Xenoestrogen in chemoresistance of breast cancer
124. Pesticides in Human Fat and Serum Samples vs Total Effective Xenoestrogen Burden
125. SOMFA on large diverse Xenoestrogen dataset: The effect of superposition algorithms and external regression tools
126. Determining the Transrepression Activity of Xenoestrogen on Nuclear Factor-κB in Cos-1 Cells by Estrogen Receptor-α
127. Channel Catfish Estrogenicity and Sewer Overflows; Implications for Xenoestrogen Exposure
128. Molecular strategies and Xenoestrogen dependent effects on fish and amphibian reproductive cascade.
129. Detection of vitellogenin gene expression changes in liver of juvenile Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus) exposed with nonylphenol Xenoestrogen compound
130. Xenoestrogen-induced signaling leading to cell viability changes on early-vs. late-stage prostate cancer cells
131. Two-dimensional electrophoresis of proteins from human intestinal Caco-2 cells exposed to the known Xenoestrogen nonylphenol
132. Examining the effects of endogenous sex steroids and the Xenoestrogen contaminant 17α-ethinylestradiol on previtellogenic coho salmon ovarian growth and function
133. DELETERIOUS EFFECT OF SHORT TERM EXPOSURE TO Xenoestrogen-BISPHENOL A ON CERTAIN HAEMATOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL …
134. Maternal Xenoestrogen exposure and breast feeding
135. Vaccination of gilthead seabream after continuous Xenoestrogen oral exposure enhances the gut endobolome and immune status via GPER1
136. The Xenoestrogen effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorines compounds: historical perspective and update
137. Female infertility-effect of perinatal Xenoestrogen exposure on reproductive functions in animals and humans
138. The effects of the Xenoestrogen, octylphenol (OP), and UV-B radiation on somatic development and hypothalamic gene expression of the leopard frog (Rana …
139. Effect of Xenoestrogen exposure on the expression of cytochrome P450 isoforms in rainbow trout liver
140. Effects of sublethal exposure of fungal Xenoestrogen on oxidative stress and hepatic histology of tadpoles Rana saharica
141. Analysis of Xenoestrogen effects in the male rat gonad
142. Differential Sensitivity to Prepubertal Xenoestrogen Disruption in C57 and CD10 Mice.
143. Effects of nonylphenol Xenoestrogen on production and changes of plasma vitellogenin protein in Persian sturgeon as a Biomarker
144. Xenoestrogen-SPECIFIC MECHANISMS OF DEVELOPMENTAL REPROGRAMMING CORRELATE WITH GENE EXPRESSION AND TUMOR DEVELOPMENT
145. Total Xenoestrogen body burden in relation to mammographic density, a marker of breast cancer risk
146. Effects of the Xenoestrogen nonylphenol on balance of thyroid and pituitary hormones (GH, FSH and TSH) of the Caspian brown trout (Salmo trutta caspius)
147. Laboratory analysis of Xenoestrogen exposed breast cancer cell lines Final Report
148. Xenoestrogen levels in milk: bioavailability and relevance as breast cancer risk factors.
149. Role of the SIX1 Oncoprotein in Endometrial Cancer Caused by Neonatal Xenoestrogen Exposure
150. Female Infertility–Effect of Perinatal Xenoestrogen Exposure on Reproductive
151. Developing a Marker of Exposure to Xenoestrogen Mixtures in Human Serum
152. The Characterization of Genes Involved in Response to the Phenol Derivative and Xenoestrogen Bisphenol-A in Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
153. Effects of Xenoestrogen on Cypla-1 gene expression
154. Gender and Age Related Modulation of Xenoestrogen-Induced Tumorigenesis
155. Xenoestrogen effects on fish: molecular to physiological approaches
156. Combinatorial Phage Library Screening for Estrogen Receptor Interacting Peptides and Applications to the Study of Xenoestrogen Biology and Pharmacology
157. Xenoestrogen-Induced Sex Reversal of Chicken Embryonic Testes Involves Specific CpG Dinucleotide Demethylation at a DNA Hypomethylation Dip in CYP19A1 …
158. Effect of native and Xenoestrogen on the pituitary-gonadal axis in male tilapia
159. Estrogen Receptor Conformation Measured by Peptide Profiling to Predict Xenoestrogen Tissue Specific Activity.
160. Inhibition of Xenoestrogen induced estrogen formation by chemopreventive phytochemicals
161. Physiological and histopathological studies on bisphenol-a compound as Xenoestrogen in male albino rats
162. Determinants of Xenoestrogen Exposure and Implications on Inter-and Intra-Variation of Urinary Biomarkers across Individuals
163. Binding of Xenoestrogen ligands to estrogen receptors and effect of Xenoestrogens on the binding of estrogen receptors to DNA sequences
164. Assessment of Xenoestrogen recognition by recombinant human estrogen receptors using ligand titration arrays
165. Transgenerational effects of the Xenoestrogen methoxychlor (M) in rats
166. Chronic Effects of Xenoestrogen, 4-tert-Octylphenol, on Apoptosis of Germ Cells in Rat Testis
167. The Xenoestrogen bisphenol A inhibits postembryonic vertebrate development by antagonizing gene regulation by thyroid hormone
168. Effect of Bisphenol A on the first generation of female rats from both parents treated with the same Xenoestrogen
169. Adverse effects of digoxin, as Xenoestrogen, on some hormonal and biochemical patterns of male albino rats
170. Xenoestrogen Exposure and Dietary Fat Connection in Breast Cancer Risk: Is There a Scientific Basis for Concern? Part 1: Breast Cancer Risk and Estrogenicity
171. Fluorescence polarization studies of Xenoestrogen interactions with human estrogen receptors, design and synthesis of mechanism-based inhibitors of cytochrome …
172. Assessing the impact of Xenoestrogen exposure during larval development on the reproductive potential of the amphibian Silurana tropicalis in a partial life-cycle …
173. Pleiotropic effects of Xenoestrogen action in prostate cancer